Article updated on Oct. 10, 2025. We expanded coverage from 7 to 12 platforms, and added APY and TVL snapshots with date stamps, exit mechanics, audit notes, and key risks. New sections cover security and Risk scoring, Advanced Strategies, a short decision tree, and a step-by-step starter flow.
This guide compares liquid staking (Lido, Rocket Pool, Jito), restaking (EigenLayer, Ether.fi), stable-yield protocols (Ethena, Resolv, Maple, Falcon), BTC staking (Babylon), and yield tokenization (Pendle). For each, we include APY guides with date stamps, TVL snapshots, exit mechanics, security notes, integrations, and key risks.
Use the quick picks and comparison table to match your asset, custody preference, liquidity need, and risk tolerance.
Quick Picks
Best overall, ETH non-custodial: Rocket Pool (rETH)
Permissionless minipools, about 1,500 node operators, strong decentralization with good liquidity.
Best for restaking yields: EigenLayer
Core AVS rewards; add Ether.fi, eETH or weETH, if you want LRT convenience and liquidity.
Best stable, low volatility yield: Maple, syrupUSDC
Instant; 1:1 USR redemptions (whitelists for size)
MixBytes, Pessimistic, Pashov, Sherlock (2024–2025)
RWA-free stable yield with instant exits
Peg/hedge, oracle/CEX, governance, funding flips
Falcon (USDf/sUSDf)
Ethereum (+BNB, XRPL EVM, Plasma)
Stable yield
~5%–20% (NFT locks 20–50%+)
~$1.9–2.1B (USDf $1.09B circ.)
Instant (locks require term)
MixBytes, Zellic, Sherlock (2024–2025)
Universal-collateral stable yields
Peg, CEX/custody, oracle, governance/regs
Maple (syrupUSDC)
Ethereum (+Solana/Arbitrum/Plasma/BNB)
Stable yield
~5%–7% base; boosts ~15%–35%
~$4.18–$4.5B (syrupUSDC >$1B)
Instant 1:1 to USDC
Zellic, Sherlock (2024–2025)
Institutional USDC yield
Credit/counterparty, governance, oracle, regs
Pendle Finance (PT/YT)
Ethereum + multi-chain (Arb/OP/Base/…/Plasma)
LP staking (yield tokenization)
PT ~1%–5%; YT ~10%–600%+; LP ~5%–50%
~$6.5–$7.278B
No lock; redeem at expiry; AMM exits anytime
PeckShield, Quantstamp, Zellic (2023–2025)
Rate views/hedging or leveraged yield
IL, de-peg vs implied, governance/oracle
Binance Earn
CeFi (exchange)
Stable yield (CeFi)
Wide: ~0.1%–60% by product
N/A (exchange pool)
Flexible vs locked (product-specific)
Internal controls; not fully public
Convenience, gasless staking
Centralized/regulatory, policy opacity, IL (DeFi Staking)
What Is DeFi Staking?
DeFi staking is an umbrella term for several yield paths that look similar in the wallet but differ sharply in risk, liquidity, and the source of returns. Getting the taxonomy right helps you size positions and avoid mismatches between your time horizon and exit mechanics.
Staking vs Restaking vs LP “Staking” vs Yield Farming
Here is a general overview of these simialr but distinct primitives:
Staking (validator/delegation): You help secure a network (e.g., ETH, SOL) and earn protocol rewards. Liquidity depends on whether you use a liquid staking token (LST) like stETH/rETH/JitoSOL or a native lock that follows validator exit queues.
Restaking (AVS security): You reuse staked ETH or LSTs to secure Actively Validated Services (AVSs) on EigenLayer or via LRTs (e.g., eETH/weETH). Rewards add on top of base staking, but AVS faults and correlation risk increases can now trigger slashing.
LP “staking” (AMM liquidity): You deposit token pairs (e.g., stETH/ETH) into AMMs like Curve/Uniswap and stake the LP token to earn trading fees and incentives. Returns face impermanent loss (IL) and de-peg risk for LST pairs.
Yield farming (incentives): You deposit assets into vaults/pools to earn protocol emissions, points, or bribes. These are variable and decay over time; treat them as temporary boost, not baseline.
Takeaway: Map your position to the correct bucket; “staking” labels can mask very different risk/exit profiles.
Rewards & Slashing Basics
Sources of reward:
Issuance/consensus rewards (e.g., ETH/SOL inflation plus priority fees and MEV share).
Fees/spreads (credit spreads, funding rates, hedging carry for stablecoins).
Incentives (token emissions, points, bribes) that may taper.
Slashing & quality:
Staking: Validator misbehavior/downtime can reduce principal or rewards (usually socialized in LSTs). Operator diversity, client mix, and DVT reduce tail risk.
Restaking: Programmable slashing across AVSs adds correlated downside; read AVS terms and unbonding windows.
LP/farming: No protocol slashing, but IL, oracle failure, and smart-contract risk can erode returns.
Takeaway: Anchor on fee/issuance-driven yield; treat emissions as variable, and always model worst-case (slashing or IL) before sizing.
DeFi Staking is Term Used For Several Yield Paths. Image via Shutterstock
Our Top Picks
This section profiles each staking or restaking option in a consistent, skimmable format so you can compare like for like. Each card includes: category and chains, why it stands out, APY range and TVL with a date stamp, unbonding or exit routes, security and development notes, integrations and liquidity, key risks, and a one-line takeaway.
Rates and TVL change quickly, so treat figures as guides rather than promises and always check live dashboards before acting. Risk chips summarize Contract, Market, Liquidity, Operational, and Governance exposure to help you size positions.
Use these to match your asset, custody preference, liquidity need, and risk tolerance, then cross-check live metrics before committing capital.
1. Lido (ETH Liquid Staking)
Category: Liquid staking
Chains: Ethereum primary with L2 access via Arbitrum, Optimism, Base, Linea. Legacy or marginal on Solana, Moonbeam, Moonriver.
Market leader: Pioneered ETH liquid staking, stETH and wstETH widely usable across DeFi.
Validator set: 800+ operators.
Liquidity: Deep pools across Curve, Balancer, and Uniswap.
Unbonding and exits
Withdrawal queue: Recent peak near 235,000 stETH pending, wait can span days to weeks.
AMM exits: No fixed cooldown for stETH or wstETH, instant via Curve and Uniswap.
Solana: Exits follow chain rules, about 2 to 5 days.
Institutions: V3 stVaults target smoother exits.
Security and development
Audits: Certora, Statemind, Sigma Prime, ChainSecurity, MixBytes, Ackee, Hexens, Oxor. Latest public reports include 2025.
Bug bounty: Immunefi up to $1M.
Module: Curated, permissioned.
Governance
DAO: Lido DAO controls key parameters.
Safeguard: stETH objection process for adverse changes.
Integrations and liquidity
DEX depth: Curve, Balancer, Uniswap.
Lending: Aave V3, about 51.3% GGV allocation, plus Morpho and Compound.
Restaking: Large EigenLayer exposure.
Apps: Pendle and more than 100 integrations.
Institutions: stVaults available.
Key risks
Slashing: Socialized across validators.
De peg: stETH may deviate in stress.
Governance: DAO changes can shift parameters.
Oracles: Dependencies such as Chainlink.
LP IL: Impermanent loss in pools.
Smart contracts: Potential bugs.
Withdrawal queues: Delays in stress.
Takeaway
Lido is a flagship for ETH liquidity with more than $38B TVL and broad integrations. You get yield and access, but exits can queue and de peg or governance risks remain. Plan AMM exit routes and track the withdrawal queue before large moves.
Data current as of Oct. 10, 2025. TVL via DeFiLlama.
2. Rocket Pool (ETH Liquid Staking, decentralized)
Category: Liquid staking
Chains: Ethereum mainnet; L2 access via Arbitrum, Optimism, Base, zkSync through bridges and pools.
AVS slashing: Restaking exposure can trigger correlated loss.
De-pegs: weETH may deviate during stress.
Governance: Policy or emission changes may affect rewards.
Oracles: Data-feed or update risk.
LP IL: Impermanent loss for AMM LPs.
Contracts: Smart-contract or vault risk.
Incentives: Reward droughts and eligibility holds.
Takeaway
A high-integration, non-custodial liquid restaking platform with around $10.78B TVL. Strong liquidity and ecosystem support, but AVS exposure and de-peg risks require close tracking.
Data current as of Oct. 10, 2025. TVL via DeFiLlama.
5. Jito (Solana Liquid Staking / JitoSOL)
Category: Liquid staking on Solana mainnet.
Chains: Broad Solana DeFi and wallet integrations.
APY, JitoSOL
~5% to 8%
As of Oct 2025
TVL
~$3.366B
DeFiLlama
Commission
~10%
Typical
Why it stands out
MEV-aware staking via Jito-Solana client adds MEV rewards.
Keeps assets liquid for DeFi routes.
Unbonding and exits
Epoch unbonding ~2 to 3 days, longer under load.
Instant exits via DEX, watch slippage.
Security and development
Audits by OtterSec, Neodyme, Zellic in 2024 to 2025. Immunefi up to $250k.
Integrations and liquidity
Raydium, Orca, Jupiter liquidity.
Borrow and perps on Kamino, Marginfi, Drift.
100+ apps, wallets like Phantom.
Key risks
Socialized slashing and de-pegs.
Governance and oracle risk.
LP impermanent loss and network congestion.
Takeaway
Leading Solana LST with MEV-boosted yields and deep integrations. Mind epoch exits and peg dynamics.
Data current as of Oct. 10, 2025. TVL via DeFiLlama.
6. Babylon (BTC Staking / bbBTC, lbBTC)
Category: Liquid, self-custodial Bitcoin staking.
Chains: Secures PoS chains and BSNs, liquidity routes to Ethereum and Solana via partners.
APY, bbBTC
~0.2% to 0.5%
Base + incentives
TVL
$6.95B
As of Oct 2025
Unbonding
~7 days
1008 BTC blocks
Why it stands out
Trustless BTC staking, no bridges or wrapping.
Unlocks idle BTC to secure PoS networks.
Unbonding and exits
Native unbonding about seven days, longer with BTC congestion.
Secondary liquidity via lbBTC/bbBTC on DEXs.
Security and development
Audits by Zellic and Sherlock Phase-2 in 2024–2025, Immunefi up to $250k.
Integrations and liquidity
Routes on Pendle, Uniswap, Lombard, Curve/Balancer pools.
Collateral on Aave/Morpho, Solv vaults, Nomic bridges.
Secures 20+ PoS chains and BSNs, institutional ramps via Kraken/BitGo.
Key risks
Programmable slashing and liquidity crunch.
Oracle and counterparty risk on venues.
Contract bugs and BTC network congestion.
Takeaway
Self-custodial BTC staking with multi-chain security. Yields are modest, unbonding is slow, plan sizing and timelines carefully.
Data current as of Oct. 10, 2025. TVL via DeFiLlama.
7. Ethena (USDe / sUSDe Staking)
Category: Yield-bearing stablecoin staking on Ethereum.
Chains: Expanding to BNB, Solana via Jupiter, TON, HyperEVM.
Category: Stablecoin protocol on Ethereum with staking.
Chains: BNB, XRPL EVM, L2s like Plasma via LayerZero/CCIP.
APY, sUSDf
~5% to 20%
As of Oct 2025
TVL
~$1.9B to $2.1B
Per DeFiLlama
Fees
~1% to 2%
Protocol share
Why it stands out
Universal collateral to mint USDf.
sUSDf routes funding, arb, and staking yields with no liquidations.
Unbonding and exits
Instant stake/unstake, 1:1 redeem, KYC for large flows.
DEX exits via Uniswap pairs.
Security and operations
Audits by MixBytes, Zellic, Sherlock; Immunefi up to $250k; ≥116% overcollateralized; BitGo/Fireblocks/Ceffu custody; Chainlink PoR; $10M insurance.
Integrations and liquidity
Uniswap, Curve, Pendle boosts up to 36×.
Lending on Morpho, Euler, Silo, Aave; Kamino; bridges to BNB/XRPL.
RWA via USTB; partners WLFi $10M and DWF Labs.
Key risks
USDf de-peg, governance drift, oracle errors.
CEX counterparty and regulatory KYC/AML risk.
Contract risk and negative funding.
Takeaway
CeDeFi stablecoin with aggressive boost paths. Balance yield with de-peg, venue, and policy risks.
Data current as of Oct. 10, 2025. TVL via DeFiLlama.
10. Maple Finance (syrupUSDC Yield)
Category: Yield-bearing stablecoin on Ethereum with cross-chain liquidity/lending.
Chains: Solana via CCIP, Arbitrum, Plasma, BNB Chain.
Net APY
~5% to 7%
As of Oct 2025
TVL
~$4.18B to $4.5B
Per DeFiLlama
Fees
~1% to 2%
DAO + emissions
Why it stands out
Institutional-grade USDC yield via expert-run lending pools.
Aims for steady returns without liquidations.
Unbonding and exits
Instant unstake to USDC at 1:1; no queues.
KYC for large redemptions; DEX and flash-loan routes.
Some bonuses may require about six months held.
Security and development
Audits by Zellic and Sherlock; Immunefi up to $250k; multisig custody with BitGo/Fireblocks; ≥116% collateral; DAO timelocks; reserves $10M+; Chainlink PoR.
Integrations and liquidity
Uniswap, Curve, Pendle boosts up to 36×.
Lending on Aave V3, Morpho, Euler; CCIP to Solana; 100+ apps.
Automation via Auto-Subscribe and BNB Vault routing.
Unbonding and exits
BETH to ETH via daily redemption quotas.
DeFi Staking offers flexible or locked terms with spreads.
Simple Earn balances liquidity versus rate.
Security and operations
CeFi model with operational and regulatory risk. Assets are not government insured; IL possible in liquidity farming.
Constraints
US and UK not supported.
Yields vary and are not guaranteed.
Fees apply, including ETH staking 10% and facilitator spreads.
Key risks
Counterparty and platform centralization risk.
Regulatory changes affecting access.
APY swings and liquidity quotas.
Takeaway
Convenient, broad menus inside one app. Trade protocol control for CeFi speed and support; review fees and quotas first.
Data current as of Oct. 10, 2025.
Security & Risk
No protocol is without risk or completely secure; this section outlines what risks each staking platform is exposed to and how critical it is, so you can decide which protocol is within your preferences.
De-pegs: stETH, rETH, JitoSOL, weETH can trade at discounts during stress or liquidity crunches (AMM/arb not instant).
Withdrawal queues: Lido/Rocket Pool follow Ethereum exits (days–weeks in surges); Jito uses epoch (~2–3 days). Ether.fi inherits EigenLayer’s ~7-day restake unbonding for LRT positions.
Validator concentration: Lido curated set (mitigated by DVT); Rocket Pool permissionless but RPL dynamics matter; Jito relies on a broad validator set + MEV client.
LP IL: Providing LST/ETH liquidity (Curve, Balancer, Uniswap) carries IL during de-peg events.
Restaking Surface
The restaking risks are as follows:
EigenLayer: Programmable slashing (live 2025); correlation across AVSs can amplify losses; 7-day unbonding.
Pendle: Not restaking, but PT/YT on LRTs propagate restaking shocks into pricing/liquidity at expiries.
LST issuers (Lido/Rocket Pool): Indirect exposure if restaked via LRTs—operator faults can cascade back to LST markets.
Ops complexity: More layers (LST → LRT → AVS) = more oracle/bridge/queue failure points.
Stable Yields vs Incentives
Stable yields rely significantly on incentives to keep TVL in the ecosystem and boost rewards for stakers:
Fee-driven:Maple (credit spread), Ethena (funding + staking, fee switch), Resolv/Falcon (hedging spreads) tend to be more durable when incentives fade.
Incentives/bribes: Pendle boosts, vePENDLE emissions, CeDeFi promos, and points can inflate APRs transiently.
Red flags: High APY sourced mainly from emissions, thin liquidity, or complex loops (e.g., leveraged LRT/PT/YT stacks).
Advanced Strategies
Pick a lane that matches your risk tolerance, liquidity needs, and monitoring bandwidth. Size positions to your worst-case scenario, not the headline APY.
It's Important to Not Focus on the Headline APY. Image via Shutterstock
Low Risk: Stablecoin Yields
What to use: Maple (syrupUSDC), Ethena (sUSDe base, not loops), Resolv (stUSR), Falcon (sUSDf base).
How: Park core cash in fee-driven/stable yields; diversify across 2–3 issuers and chains. Prefer flexible (instant exit) tranches; avoid fixed-term locks unless you truly don’t need liquidity.
Target mix (example): 40–60% of staking sleeve. Cap any single stable at ≤25% portfolio.
Monitor: Peg deviations, reserve/hedge reports, incentive tapering, and mint/redeem flows.
Treat as cash-plus; prioritize redemption mechanics over “boosts.”
Medium Risk: Staked ETH
What to use: Lido (stETH/wstETH), Rocket Pool (rETH), JitoSOL if you run a SOL account.
How: Hold LSTs unlevered, or pair small LST baskets (e.g., stETH+rETH) for validator/diversification benefits. If LPing LST/ETH, keep ranges wide and size modestly to limit de-peg IL.
Target mix (example): 25–40% of staking sleeve.
Monitor: Withdrawal queues, LST liquidity depth, validator performance, and DAO proposals (fees/allowlists).
Core yield with liquid exits, but queues and basis risk are real.
Medium-High: Restaking
What to use: EigenLayer (native/LST restake), Ether.fi (eETH/weETH), selective AVSs.
How: Start unlevered; allocate only from your LST sleeve (e.g., 20–40% of LSTs). Prefer diversified AVS exposure and avoid single-AVS concentration. Keep some non-restaked LST as a liquidity buffer.
Higher carry, higher correlation and slashing surface.
High Risk: Leveraged Looping (use sparingly)
What to use: Pendle PT/YT (rate views), Aave/Morpho loops on LSTs or stables, boosted vaults (e.g., Plasma/HyperEVM).
How: Define max LTV (e.g., ≤35% for LST loops, ≤25% for stable loops). For Pendle, separate PT (fixed-rate carry) from YT (directional bet); never fund YT with volatile collateral. Use hard stops and alerting on collateral factor, oracle spreads, and funding flips.
Positioning: ≤5–10% of total portfolio, trade-style sizing, pre-planned unwind path.
Monitor: Liquidation thresholds, AMM depth at exit, emissions decay, maturity calendars, and cross-venue borrow costs.
Leverage magnifies both yield and tail risk; plan exits before entries.
How to Choose the Right Staking Platform
60-second Decision Tree
Asset, ETH or SOL or BTC or stables→Custody, self or service→Liquidity need, LST or not→Risk tolerance, slashing or contract→Unbonding target→Chain fees
Match your asset first, it sets fee and exit rules.
Pick custody next, self custody gives control, service adds convenience.
If you need speed, use liquid staking tokens; if not, native or locked works.
Be honest on risk, higher yield often adds slashing or contract exposure.
Choose an exit time, hours, days, or longer, and size positions to it.
Check gas, move to L2s if costs bite.
7-Point Checklist
Audits and bug bounties: Recent reports and a live bounty.
Validator set and decentralization: Broad operators, no outsized control.
LST liquidity depth: Multiple venues with low slippage.
Unbonding and exit: Clear queues or instant routes that you can verify.
APY source: Know what drives yield, base rewards, funding, or emissions.
Integration support: Borrow, hedge, and LP options you plan to use.
Governance and DAO activity: Transparent votes, timelocks, recent updates.
How to Start DeFi Staking (Step-by-Step)
Getting started is straightforward if you keep the first run small, verify receipts, and rehearse the exit. Use this flow to build confidence before scaling position size.
10-Minute Safe Pilot
Start with a tiny, controlled test that touches every step you will repeat later at a larger size.
Choose a blue-chip protocol that matches your asset and risk.
Fund a pilot of $50–$200.
Approve the token, then stake. Confirm you received the derivative (stETH, rETH, eETH, JitoSOL, USDe→sUSDe, etc.) in your wallet and on-chain explorer.
Set alerts for price, de-peg thresholds, and major governance posts.
Test the exit with a very small amount. If there is a queue, note the timestamp. If using an AMM exit, record slippage and gas.
Do a full stake-to-unstake rehearsal on a small scale before adding a zero.
Pre-Stake Checklist
A quick gate to prevent avoidable mistakes.
Audits and recent disclosures reviewed
Exit route verified (withdrawal queue, AMM depth, or both)
APY source understood (fees, funding, incentives)
Allowance is scoped to the minimum needed
Fee timing and gas conditions considered
Liquidity checked at both entry and exit sizes
App and Explorer both reflect balances correctly
If two or more answers are “unknown,” pause and investigate.
Monitoring & Ops
Keep a light but consistent process so you catch issues early.
Harvest cadence: schedule claim or auto-compound cycles
Security hygiene: revoke stale allowances, rotate hot wallets when needed
Segmentation: separate wallets by strategy and risk, keep a liquid buffer in base assets
Logs: track entry price, APY at entry, planned exit route, and realized slippage
Simple routines and alerts beat ad-hoc checks. If an alert fires, reduce size first, analyze second.
Frequently Asked Questions
What Is DeFi Staking and How Is It Different from Yield Farming?
DeFi staking secures a network or service (e.g., ETH/SOL validators, EigenLayer AVSs). Rewards come from issuance, fees, and MEV sharing. Yield farming is depositing assets to earn incentives (tokens/points/bribes) or trading fees in vaults/AMMs. Farming returns are variable and often depend on emissions; staking returns are tied to protocol economics.
What APY Can I Reasonably Expect In 2025?
Directionally: LSTs (stETH/rETH/JitoSOL) ~2.5%–8% by chain; restaking stacks that to ~1%–8% incremental; stable-yield stacks (sUSDe, stUSR, syrupUSDC, sUSDf) ~5%–10% base, higher with boosts; Pendle PT fixed ~1%–5% and YT highly variable; BTC staking (Babylon) ~0.2%–0.5%. Treat these as guides, not guarantees.
Is Liquid Staking (LST) Safe?
It’s non-custodial but not risk-free. Main risks: de-pegs vs the base asset, validator slashing (usually socialized), oracle failures, and withdrawal queues during stress. Diversification (Lido + Rocket Pool), using deep-liquidity exits, and avoiding leveraged LPs reduce risk.
What Is Restaking and Why Are Yields Higher?
You reuse staked ETH/LSTs to secure Actively Validated Services (AVSs) on EigenLayer or via LRTs (eETH/weETH). Extra rewards come from AVS fees/incentives—but you also add programmable slashing and correlation risk across multiple services and a ~7-day unbonding layer.
How Long Does Unstaking Take?
Ethereum LSTs: withdrawals rely on validator exit churn (days to weeks in surges) or instant via AMMs (with slippage). Restaking: typical ~7 days. Solana (Jito): epoch-based ~2–3 days. Stable-yield protocols often allow instant unstake; BTC staking (Babylon) ~1008 blocks (~7 days).
Can Beginners Stake with Small Amounts?
Yes. Start with a $50–$200 pilot: approve → stake → verify receipt → set alerts → test a tiny exit. Scale only after a full stake-to-unstake rehearsal.
How Do I Avoid Major Risks?
Use audited, liquid, widely integrated protocols; verify exits (queue plus AMM depth). Avoid overleverage; size positions to withstand de-pegs and funding flips. Set alerts for oracle deviations, governance changes, and slashing/AVS updates. Revoke stale allowances and segment wallets.
Are Staking Rewards Taxable?
Often yes, but rules vary by jurisdiction and asset type (e.g., income vs capital treatment, timing of recognition). Keep precise records of receipts, redemptions, and valuations, and consult a qualified tax professional in your country.
Where Should I Keep Staked Assets?
Use a hardware wallet for keys and a battle-tested web3 wallet for daily ops. Consider a separate wallet per strategy (LST, restake, stable yield) and keep an unstaked buffer in the base asset for emergencies. Regularly revoke unused approvals.
Which Is Better—Lido or Rocket Pool?
Lido: Deepest integrations/liquidity and operational maturity; risks include governance decisions and stETH de-peg episodes.
Rocket Pool: Decentralization-first with permissionless minipools; slightly thinner liquidity and RPL-linked dynamics.
Many split allocations between both.
Can I Stake BTC?
Yes via Babylon, which enables self-custodial BTC staking to secure PoS/BSN networks. Yields are low (~0.2%–0.5%) and unbonding is ~7 days, but it preserves BTC custody without bridges.
Why Do APYs Change So Much?
They reflect underlying economics: validator rewards and MEV, AVS fees, funding rates, incentive emissions, and market liquidity. When funding turns, incentives taper, or liquidity thins, APYs compress. Always check live dashboards and stress-test for lower-yield scenarios before sizing.
My interest in financial markets and computers fueled my curiosity about blockchain technology. I'm interested in DeFi, L1s, L2s, rollups, and cryptoeconomics and how these innovations shape the blockchain industry as a growing global product.
Disclaimer: These are the writer’s opinions and should not be considered investment advice. Readers should do their own research.
